Chemistry

What an element is, and why elements are listed in the periodic table

How compounds form from elements

Mixtures, pure substances, and why separation works

Conservation of mass in chemical reactions

Why chemical equations must be balanced

Writing state symbols: (s), (l), (g), (aq)

Using scientific vocabulary precisely in exam answers

Using units correctly in chemistry calculations

Significant figures and standard form in chemistry contexts

Identifying independent, dependent, and control variables

Writing a testable hypothesis

Accuracy, precision, and repeatability in measurements

Reducing uncertainty: repeats, ranges, and anomalies

Risk assessment: hazards, risks, and control measures

Interpreting graphs and spotting proportionality

Elements, compounds, and mixtures: spotting the difference

Simple model of the atom: nucleus and electrons

Protons, neutrons, and electrons: charges and relative masses

Atomic number and mass number

Working out numbers of subatomic particles from isotope notation

Isotopes: what changes and what stays the same

Relative atomic mass: why it’s not a whole number

Electron shells and electron arrangement for the first 20 elements

Why atoms form ions: gaining and losing electrons

Development of the atom: changing models with evidence

Periodic table layout: periods and groups

Metals vs non-metals: key physical properties

Group 0: why noble gases are unreactive

Group 1: reactions with water and trends down the group

Group 7: halogens, displacement, and trends down the group

Transition metals: key differences from Group 1 (including catalysts)

What a “displacement reaction” means in terms of reactivity

Chemical bonds as electrostatic attractions

Ionic bonding: metal + non-metal electron transfer

Drawing dot-and-cross diagrams for ions and ionic compounds

Ionic lattices and why ionic compounds have high melting points

Why ionic compounds conduct when molten/in solution but not solid

Covalent bonding: sharing electrons

Dot-and-cross diagrams for simple covalent molecules

Comparing simple molecular substances and giant structures

Metallic bonding: positive ions and delocalised electrons

Explaining conductivity and malleability in metals

Giant covalent structures: diamond and graphite

Graphene: structure and properties

Silicon dioxide as a giant covalent structure

Polymers: long chains and low melting points

Intermolecular forces and boiling point trends (Higher)

States of matter: particle model and energy changes

Internal energy and what changes during heating/cooling (Higher)

Density: how to calculate and interpret

Changes of state and what a heating curve shows

Nanoparticles: what “nano” means and why properties change

Uses and risks of nanoparticles

Relative formula mass: calculating from the periodic table

The mole as “amount of substance”

Converting between mass, moles, and Mr

Balancing equations to calculate reacting masses

Limiting reactants (Higher)

Conserving atoms when predicting products

Theoretical yield: meaning and calculation (Higher)

Percentage yield: calculation and why it’s less than 100%

Atom economy: calculation and linking to sustainability

Concentration in g/dm³ and converting units

Concentration in mol/dm³ (Higher)

Using concentration to calculate moles in solution

Gas volumes and moles at room temperature (Higher)

Titration calculations: building a clear method (Higher)

Using ratios in balanced equations confidently

Acids, alkalis, and the pH scale

Indicators: colour changes and what they show

Neutralisation: making salts and water

Naming salts from the acid used

Reactions of acids with metals: salt + hydrogen

Reactions of acids with carbonates: salt + water + carbon dioxide

Making a soluble salt from an insoluble base (method + reasoning)

Crystallisation: producing a pure dry sample

Strong vs weak acids: what “weak” means (Higher)

Electrolytes and why ions are needed for conduction

Electrolysis of molten ionic compounds

Electrolysis of aqueous solutions: competing ions (Higher)

Half equations for electrolysis at each electrode (Higher)

Metal extraction basics: reduction and oxidation

Oxidation and reduction using electron transfer (Higher)

Redox in terms of oxygen loss/gain (foundation-friendly)

Exothermic vs endothermic reactions: energy transfer idea

Reaction profiles: what axes and shapes mean

Activation energy on a reaction profile

Bond breaking vs bond making: where energy goes

Calculating energy change using bond energies (Higher)

Temperature changes and how to measure them safely

Neutralisation temperature change: what affects the result

Fuels and energy transfer in combustion

Comparing fuels using energy per mass (Higher)

Evaluating errors in temperature-change practicals

What “rate of reaction” means in practical terms

Measuring rate by gas volume, mass loss, or colour change

Calculating mean rate from data

Drawing and interpreting rate graphs

Tangents and instantaneous rate (Higher)

Collision theory: why particles must collide

Activation energy in collision theory terms

Temperature and rate: frequency and energy of collisions

Concentration/pressure and rate: collision frequency

Surface area and rate: surface area to volume ratio

Catalysts and how they work (lower activation energy)

Enzymes as biological catalysts

Reversible reactions and the reversible reaction symbol

Dynamic equilibrium: forward rate equals reverse rate

Shifting equilibrium by concentration (Higher)

Shifting equilibrium by temperature (Higher)

Shifting equilibrium by pressure (Higher)

Le Chatelier’s principle for predictions (Higher)

Choosing conditions for yield, rate, cost, and safety (Haber-style)

Crude oil as a finite resource and why we process it

Hydrocarbons and what “saturated” means

Alkanes: general formula and bonding

Fractional distillation: separating crude oil by boiling point

Properties of fractions: patterns with chain length

Cracking: why we do it and what we make

Alkenes: double bonds and general formula

Testing for alkenes using bromine water

Addition reactions of alkenes (concept + examples)

Addition polymerisation: making polymers from alkenes

Comparing properties of small alkenes vs polymers

Ethanol production by fermentation: conditions and equation

Ethanol production by hydration of ethene (Higher)

Comparing fermentation vs hydration (yield, rate, purity)

Carboxylic acids: acids in organic chemistry (Higher)

Esters: making esters and recognising the smell (Higher)

Condensation polymerisation basics (Higher)

Pure substances and why melting/boiling points matter

Chromatography basics: stationary vs mobile phase

Interpreting chromatograms: spots, colours, and separation

Calculating Rf values (Higher)

Flame tests for common metal ions

Precipitation tests for halide ions (chloride, bromide, iodide)

Sulfate test and the precipitate colour

Carbon dioxide test using limewater

Hydrogen test using a lit splint

Oxygen test using a glowing splint

Chlorine test using damp litmus paper

Instrumental analysis: speed, accuracy, sensitivity

Gas chromatography basics (Higher)

Mass spectrometry basics (Higher)

Identifying elements from spectra (Higher)

Making a reasoned identification from multiple tests

Proportions of gases in the atmosphere

How Earth’s early atmosphere formed (volcanoes, oceans, oxygen rise)

The greenhouse effect: what it is and why it happens

Human causes of climate change: greenhouse gases

Effects of climate change: environmental and societal impacts

Carbon footprint and reducing emissions

Atmospheric pollutants: CO, SO₂, NOₓ, particulates

Acid rain: formation and effects

Controlling sulfur dioxide emissions from fuels

Photochemical smog: formation and impact (Higher)

Corrosion and rusting: oxygen and water needed

Preventing rust: barrier methods, galvanising, sacrificial protection

Water as a resource: potable water and why it matters

Treating water: filtration, sterilisation, and distillation

Desalination: benefits and energy costs (Higher)

Using finite resources sustainably

Life cycle assessments: what’s included and what’s missed

Reducing, reusing, and recycling: where each fits best

Extracting metals: mining vs recycling (energy and pollution)

Corrosion as a waste of resources and how prevention helps

Alloys: why mixing metals changes properties

Ceramics: properties, uses, and limitations

Polymers: thermosoftening vs thermosetting (Higher)

Composites: why combining materials improves performance

Haber process: making ammonia and why it matters

Conditions in Haber process: equilibrium vs rate vs cost

NPK fertilisers and why plants need nitrates/phosphates/potassium

Producing fertilisers: making ammonia as a starting point

Using fertilisers responsibly: eutrophication and environmental issues

Making a soluble salt and producing crystals (chemistry-only)

Titration: finding the reacting volumes accurately (chemistry-only)

Electrolysis: products at electrodes and half equations

Temperature change: comparing exothermic and endothermic reactions

Rates of reaction: investigating concentration effects (gas/colour methods)

Chromatography: separating dyes and calculating Rf values

Identifying ions: using flame tests and precipitation tests

Water purification: analysing and producing potable water (AQA)